First published in 1951, Albert Camus’s The Rebel is an in-depth philosophical examination of the role of rebellion and revolution in human society, with a special emphasis on the role of each in modern history since the French Revolution. The various issues raised by this topic—including the experience and limitations of human freedom, the idea of justice and the pursuit of a better society, and the temptations of totalitarianism—were of personal and intellectual importance to Camus. Having nursed a lifelong interest in existentialist questions, Camus was intrigued by the intellectual complexity of these issues. Moreover, as someone who risked his own safety serving with the French Resistance during the Nazi occupation of France, he was compelled to resolve the moral conundrum made evident by the consequences of the revolutionary ideologies that arose in the 20th century.

At the time of its publication, The Rebel helped cement Camus’s reputation as a major literary figure in both fiction and nonfiction. Written against the backdrop of World War II, the Nuremberg Trials, and the Soviet Union’s continuing dominance in Eastern Europe, The Rebel is both a historical testament to the ethical and political concerns of Camus’s time and a timeless meditation on the dangers of utopian ideologies and revolution more generally.

This guide uses the e-book version of the 1991 Vintage International edition, translated from French by Anthony Bower. All citations refer to digital location numbers.

Summary

The Rebel opens with an Introduction offering insight into the general themes of the work. Camus laments the fact that Europe appears to be living in a morally bankrupt state and that terrible crimes against mankind are now frequently justified instead of condemned. Above all else, Camus is haunted by the horrors wrought by the Nazis in World War II, which he regards as the starkest embodiment of Europe’s moral and cultural decline. Camus intends to discover how rebellion and revolution have shaped modern history from the French Revolution to the 20th century.

In Part 1, Camus discusses the nature of a true rebel and rebellion. He argues that true rebellion is more communal than individualistic in nature, as the rebel seeks to uphold the common dignity of all. For Camus, this spirit of true rebellion has long been threatened by the encroachments of nihilism, a philosophy that rejects traditional morality and sees life as meaningless.

In Part 2, Camus discusses metaphysical rebellion, which is a more abstract and therefore more problematic form of rebellion. He traces the development of metaphysical rebellion from the works of the ancient Greek philosophers on through to the works of the Marquis de Sade, the Romantics, and the Surrealists. Camus argues that the Marquis de Sade (the title of French nobleman and writer Donatien Alphonse François) ushered in a dangerous new era in which liberty was conceived of in highly solitary and individualistic terms that conflict the communal spirit of true rebellion. He also addresses the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche, whose nihilistic philosophy was influential in the first half of the 20th century.

In Part 3, Camus goes into greater detail about the historical development of revolution. In discussing the French Revolution, he analyzes how the killing of King Louis XVI brought an end to a traditional Christian worldview, creating room for new secular ideologies. However, Camus argues that many of these secular ideologies retain something of the utopianism and fanaticism of strict religious faith. He argues that in trying to create an ideal man and ideal society, many revolutions end in terror and oppression.

In Part 4, Camus discusses the relationship between art and rebellion. He argues that art provides mankind with the sense of unity and universality that all men crave but real life often lacks. Art interacts with reality in a constructive and dynamic way; it adapts or recreates reality in a certain sense, but never entirely jettisons it, as many revolutionary thinkers try to do. Camus argues that totalitarian revolutionaries always mistrust art, as true art will never bend to serve purely propagandistic or revolutionary aims.

In Part 5, Camus reiterates some of his key ideas about the nature of true freedom and rebellion. He reasserts the importance of moderation and a communal sense of liberty, which rebellion represents, and argues that rebellion often operates in defiance of history instead of resulting purely from historical circumstances. He concludes that the only way to create a better future is to give all one’s efforts to the present, and that art and rebellion will remain timeless and intrinsic parts of the human experience as long as the human race endures.